Agriculture

The land would be ploughed using an ard that cuts a groove in the soil but does not turn the furrow, therefore the field would sometimes be cross-ploughed. Smaller fields would be worked with hoes, picks or dug with spades. The plough with iron blade and mould-board that turns a proper furrow, was not known in Scandinavia until the later Viking Age.

Once the land had been prepared, the seeds were sown by hand and the crops allowed to grow. Children, especially, would be used to scare away the birds and to weed the crops, ensuring as good a chance of it growing, as possible.

At the end of the summer, the grain was harvested using a sickle and was a family activity. Animal feed for the winter would have to be considered at this point and hay was harvested using a scythe. Foliage may have been cut down to supplement the feed.

Once the land was cleared of crops, slaves (where available) were given the job of dunging the land, in preperation for the next cycle of ploughing and harvesting.

Cattle

An important source of meat and dairy products were the various domestic animals kept on the farm. Cows, sheep, goats, pigs and sometimes horses were grazed and it depended on the land as to whether they were generally left to their own devices or herded up to higher ground when the snows came. Across this country, animals may have been brought inside when the weather got bad.

Hunting and Fishing

A further source of meat would be obtained by hunting and, depending on where one lived and the available natural resources, this would be for elk, deer, boar, bear, reindeer, whale, seal, hares and ducks.

The sea held an abundance of food such as cod, haddock, herring and eel which would be fished for and then preserved for future consumption.

Farm buildings

Maintenance of the farm buildings and tools was an essential activity and would include the roof of the barn being re-thatched. These activities, and indeed the whole farming process, would have occupied the time of man, woman, child and slave. Although the main domain of the women was certainly inside the house, there would be plenty to require extra hands outside and if the menfolk go off exploring, raiding, travelling or fighting, then the woman of the house would be in charge of both inside the farmhouse and out.

Farm

The main building would be rectangular in shape and built with a timber frame that was then wattle and daubed. With a thatched roof there would be a hole for smoke ventilation – there is no evidence of chimneys. A poor building would probably only have one room with a central hearth and the walls may be lined with wooden benches that serve as seating during the daytime and beds at night.

A richer home might have an additional room at one or both ends that could serve as storage, a kitchen, containing a bread oven, or a small byre that kept humans and animals under one roof. This would certainly contribute to the warmth of the house, and apparently, the fumes from the animal urine could protect the humans from some respiratory diseases!

A prosperous farm may well have several buildings in addition to the longhouse, for example, a smithy for the maintainence of tools and equipment, a bakery, a byre or stable, a bath-house or a threshing-barn.

Saxon

The family was extremely important in Anglo-Saxon society; women took their social rank from their father, or their husband after marriage. The family was a large group of cousins, aunts, uncles etc, a clan rather than a family in the modern sense. If wergeld was due, it was shared by the kindred, whether paying it or receiving it, and if a bloodfeud was in progress, any adult male on the other side was a valid target. A man was expected to support his kinsmen through thick and thin, although by the 9th century, royal laws were attempting to limit this somewhat. A man without kinsmen was in a very vulnerable position, like a man without a lord.

Now for a look at the social ranks in some detail, starting at the bottom and working up. Our best source for the status of the lesser members of society is the 11th Century ‘Rectitudines Singularum Personarum’ but other evidence shows that similar social divisions were in existance by the 9th century.

The Theow is a slave. He/she can be bought, sold or given. They cannot contract a legal marriage and any children are the property of the owner and can be sold seperately. What very few rights the theow had were probably due to the church. Slaves can be born (of slaves), be captured in war, become slaves as punishment for crime or because of inability to pay legal fines, or in hard times the poor might sell themselves into slavery to avoid starvation. Anyone killing a slave only had to pay his market value to the owner; no wergeld went to the slaves family. A slave could be bound, beaten, perhaps even killed by his owner with no fear of any legal retribution. However, it was possible for slaves to work for themselves during what little spare time they had and perhaps earn enough to buy their freedom, or they could be freed as an act of Christian piety, particularly in the wills of rich people.

The Cotsetla is a freed man (ie a former slave or perhaps descended from freed slaves) but he is legally free and has a freeman’s rights and obligations. He owes considerable labour services to his lord. According to the Rectitudires, he should have at least five acres of land to farm himself but note that he does not own this, it is land belonging to his lord that he has the use of.

The Gebur is likewise a freed man or the son of one, but rather better off. The gebur owes his lord less work but also has to pay rent (in cash or in kind). He is provided with land, tools and stock by his lord but these revert to the lord on the gebur’s death. In the Rectitudires, his normal holding was a quarter of a hide.

The Gafolgelda or Ceorl is essentially a gebur holding more land from his lord, for which he pays rent in cash or kind. If he does well, he may be able to buy himself out of being a gebur and become fully free – able to go where he pleases, rather than being tied to his lord’s estate. Gafolgelda means ‘rent
payer’.

The Geneat is actually fully free. Geneat means ‘companion’ and pobably reflects the status of a priviledged class of noblemen’s retainers. He still owes labour services to his lord (possibly not performed in person but by his servants) and rent as well. The geneat is also known as ‘radman’ or ‘radcniht’ (hence ‘knight’ after the Norman Conquest). He is expected to own a horse and arms and to serve as a mounted messenger. A number of sources mention geneats performing millitary service, probably as retainers of noblemen. Sometimes the sources refer to the ‘kings geneats’ who may have had superior status

A Thegn is a noble man. It seems to have been accepted that a thegn held at least five hides of land. By the 9th century nobles held their land by charter and so it did not revert to the king on the thegn’s death but passed on to his heir. The Rectitudires states that the thegn owed three things in respect of his land: military service, fortress building and bridge building; the ‘Trimoda Necessitas’ that were usually reserved for the king’s dues in charters. As for the geneat, the sources sometimes refer to the king’s thegns and later evidence make it clearthat these were men of superior status to the other thegns.

The Ealdorman is a governor of a shire. In the 9th century this pst was not hereditary (in theory if not in fact) but a royal appointment. Ealdomen wielded considerable power – they were responsible for administering justice and in times of war, calling out the fyrd of the shire and leading them into battle.

An Aetheling is a male relative of the king and hence a possible heir to or rival for the throne. Brothers, sons, nephews, cousins and uncles could all class as aethelings. They often served as royal deputies or ealdormen and were also known to go into revolt.

The Cyning is the king. In the 9th century, kings seem to usually have been selectedfrom amongst the various aethelings available. It was not always the eldest son of the last king, by any means. This allowed for the best man for the job to be picked but could also cause the dynastic wars that were common in Anglo-Saxon England. The Cyning was head of state, chief justice and commander in chief: an absolute ruler if strong enough, or capable of being pushed around if weak. Weak kings tended not to last very long!

Social mobility. It was possible to rise in social status; A ceorl could takeon more land and become fully free and even in some cases actually gain five hides, in which case if he performed the royal dues, he came to rank as a thegn. If this was kept up for three generations, the rank of thegn became hereditary, even if the land-holding later fell below five hides. Such impoverished nobles seem to have been fairly common by the Norman Conquest but were probably quite rare in the 9th century.

Downwards mobility was also possible as explained previously. The Ceorls, although not free by modern standards (the word ‘serf’ comes to mind). were free by Anglo-Saxon standards; unlike a slave, nobody owned him and he had the full legal rights of a freeman, as well as the duties. Alfred’s laws and earlier archeological evidence imply that ceorls owned weapons but these were probably restricted to spear and shield: the spear of course was not only used in war but also for hunting.

Most Ceorls do not seem to have been very wealthy however and so would be very unlikely to own expensive military equipment such as horses, helmets, swords or mail shirts.

Lordship. The bonds of lordship, a two-way relationship, were universal. Every man save the king had to have a lord: the king himself, an earldorman, a wealthy thegn or a wealthy clergyman. Alfred’s laws clearly display the horror that was felt at treachery to one’s lord. The lord had to protect and to support his follower and vice versa. This included seeking vengeance for wrongs, just as a man was expected to uphold his kinsmen.

The Fyrd was a levy of men liable for military service from the kingdom to repel invaders. Thegns were certainly liable for military service and geneats and ceorls were also liable for some sort of military service. As most ceorls would not have been able to afford much in the way of military equipment, it is probable that they served as part of a wealthy nobles personal retinue. The size of the retinue depended on the size of the nobles estate, probably at the rate of one man per five hides.

To sum up, Michael Wood says in his book on Doomsday ‘Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical, aristocratic and militaristic’. One of the classical works translated at Alfred’s command, stated that a kingdom needed three types of men: to work, fight and pray, and Anglo-Saxon society seems to have been organised to fulfil this view.

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Viking

This article is for the viking warrior classes, ie. male vikings! For the female, class distinction was much simpler: low, middle and high status pretty much covers it! A very low-status female would have likely been a slave or other desperate creature, probably working the farms and homes of the free middle-status women.
For the higher-status ladies, there would be little work to do once the many lower-status people had done it for her! Anyway, here is the male class system, starting at the top with leadership…

King: A King can be either national, local or a ‘sea’ king. The amount of wealth and number of followers needed to reach this elevated status would suggest that there is no one within the society that could effectively pass themselves off as someone with this amount of control and power.

Earl or Jarl: a Jarl would be the chief man for a region and whilst he would have a large amount of independence he would still owe his allegiance to the king. The officership of Viking units within the society will probably fit into either this category or the next.

Hersar (Norse term): a minor nobleman, individual clan chieftain or simply a ‘pirate’ boss in charge of a small fleet or single ship. Whether a leader was the sole man in charge or one of many, his prestige would depend to a great extent on his own personal behavior, especially in battle, and his nobility of birth and may well have been hereditary. This does not mean however that a young and ambitious warrior could not, over a period of years, elevate themselves with the support of their family or clan to a higher social status.

Royal Dignitaries: In addition to the above there would also be various positions appointed by the King or local leadership. These would include tax collectors, standard/shield bearers, scalds, clerics and law speakers. There are many names for these roles including bryti, armadr and especially lendermen
(meaning: ‘men worthy of honour’).

Bodyguards: Whilst all landowners would have a personal household retinue in the shape of farm workers, tenants, neighbours, family and slaves that could be converted into a small personal army or ships crew, at higher social levels these people would be more specialized and could be classed as personal
bodyguards. They may well fit into two categories i.e. standard-bearer and bodyguard and would be totally trusted and loyal subjects. At the highest levels these men would come close to a military elite and were known as Hirdmen or Housecarls.

Warriors: In many of the sagas there is reference to warlike fighting men known as berserks (berserkir: ‘bearshirts’ or less commonly ulfhednar: wolfskins). It has been suggested that these men were capable of great feats of bravery and would have no need of Armour whilst fighting due to their ability to ignore injury and pain. In reality I would suggest that these folk were nothing more than groups of accomplished warriors who fought together and possibly wore
animal skins as a sign of their prowess.

Freemen: Below the level of Housecarls and Berserkir would come the majority of the Viking forces known variously as Bondi, Drengs or Hauldr. These would be free men who either recognized a legal obligation to military service or voluntarily joined a crew to go ‘a Viking’. The vast majority of society members will fit into this category and will come under the control of one of the above roles. The importance of this ‘majority’ should not be over looked, these people were the main stay of the Viking world and would have attended the ‘Thing’ and dominated the local courts and assemblies.

Slaves: Despite our modern day repulsion at the idea of slavery, this was commonplace during the Dark Ages and should not be ignored. I am not suggesting that we actively encourage any member to portray this role, however, played well in ‘one off’ scenarios this can be an entertaining addition to a
script.

In addition to the above there would have been numerous other ‘free enterprise’ followers to any campaign and settlement, these would include traders, blacksmiths and carpenters to name but a few.

Obviously a mans clothing and equipment should reflect his status; how a Viking looked, what clothes he wore and weapons he carried, made a statement to the outside world. As individuals we should strive to accurately portray our chosen character, there is a wealth of information both on the net and in the printed word to help the interested.[back to top]

Sources: Anglo-Saxon Class Structure by Herewulf, DASmag Spring 2001 and The Viking Warrior Classes by Anlaf Olafsson, DASmag Winter 2003

Vikings and Anglo-Saxons

At the end of the eighth century A.D., England was a fully settled Christian land occupied by largely Anglo-Saxon peoples. Much of the land lay within great estates owned by kings, noble families and the Church.

The ninth century saw the Vikings first raid, then conquer and finally settle in England. The Anglo-Saxons gradually lost control of almost the entire country: the low point came in 878 when Guthrum’s forces drove King Ælfred into hiding in Somerset. The remarkable Ælfred immediately returned for a second try and defeated Guthrum soundly, thus beginning the long process of restoring Anglo-Saxon rule, and eventually creating the English nation.

By 920 A.D., Ælfred’s descendants ruled most of the country, although the Danelaw remained a distinct administrative region and numerous Norwegian and Danish settlers retained their lands. In the latter part of the tenth century, a new generation of Vikings launched fresh attacks, first raiding, then extorting tribute and finally bringing England under Danish rule which persisted sporadically through the 11th century: the formidable King Knutr or Canute ruled England, Denmark and Norway from 1016 until 1035.

In 1066 England was conquered one final time by the Viking-descended Normans so it may be said that the Vikings are still with us.

Throughout the ninth to eleventh centuries, Christianity was wielded as a political weapon. Defeated monarchs were forced to convert and allow the Church to set up its administrative structure in their lands.

The Viking attacks were not necessarily seen as the cause of the problems of England: Æelfred considered them a punishment for and consequence of the decline of religious practice.

The Vikings in England

The usual image we have of Vikings in England is of wholesale destruction, conquest and slaughter. Religious establishments are assumed to have been sacked and destroyed on a daily basis.

The true picture is probably more varied. For example, Chertsey Abbey was said to have been attacked in the second half of the ninth century causing the death of the abbot Beocca and ninety monks. But the will of Ealdorman Alfred suggests that the Abbey was thriving again by the 880s.

The Vikings were far from the only factor affecting England. In King Ælfred’s view, the raids were the effect of neglect. The monastic life seems to have fallen into disrepute, and religious life had declined in influence and importance. However, numerous monasteries and nunneries did survive through the ninth and tenth centuries.

One of the major consequences of the Viking incursions seems to have been the unification of England and the development of an English identity under Ælfred’s rule.

Viking Fortifications in England

Overwintering armies needed defensible camps. Natural islands such as Thanet and the Isle of Sheppey were the first choices, but according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Vikings built forts from the late ninth century onwards:

• 885 Rochester
• 892 Milton Regis near Sittingbourne, and Appledore in Kent
• 893 Benfleet and Shoebury on the Essex coast
• 894 the shore of the River Lea

Forts are hard to recognise and date, and names such as Danes’ Dyke (Humberside) may be misleading, as earlier features were often given a Viking attribution by later historians.

The sites are likely to have used sea, river or marsh as protection on one side, with a D-shaped enclosure such as those around coastal trading sites at Birka and Hedeby. Such a site is known from Repton and was built by the Viking army in 873-4.

An unexcavated site on Ray Island, close to Mersea Island in the Blackwater Estuary, may be a Viking site but this has not been confirmed.

Our main historical source is the Anglo-Saxon chronicle, but there are other records such as the Irish Annals, letters, and political documents. It’s always exciting when the written record can be matched with archaeological finds, as at Repton.

Sporadic Raids by Norwegians

• 792 King Offa makes arrangements for the defence of Kent against “pagan peoples”.
• 793 Lindisfarne destroyed by “heathen men”.
• 798 Inis Patraic attacked [1].
• 804 The monastery of Lyminge, north of Romney Marsh, acquires a refuge within the walls of Canterbury.

Increased Raiding by Norwegians and Danes

• 835-850 Heavy raids on south coast.
• 850 A Danish army winters at Thanet, despite a Danish force been defeated at Wicganbeorg by Ealdorman ceorl and the men of Devon. Either these were two different groups, or the defeated army retreated to Thanet.
• 851 350 ships enter mouth of Thames. The warriors storm Canterbury and London, and go into Surrey, where they are defeated at Aclea by a West Saxon force.
• 860 Vikings who’d been in the Somme in 859 storm Winchester but are then put to flight and return to the continent in 861.

The “Great Army”

• 865 Large armies start to arrive intending permanent settlement. These forces are highly mobile and move rapidly around the country attacking weak kingdoms. “A great heathen army” winters in East Anglia. This combined force appears to have been led by Ivar the Boneless [2] and his brother Halfdan, among others.
• 866 The Great Army moves into Northumbria.
• 866 Vikings capture York.
• 867 The Great Army moves into Mercia. The Northumbrian king Aella is killed at York in the spring.
• 868 The Great Army goes back into Northumbria.
• 869 The Great Army goes through Mercia to East Anglia. Vikings kill Edmund, king of the East Angles and claim conquest.

Enter King Ælfred

• 871 King Æthelred dies and is succeeded by his brother Ælfred. Vikings attack Wessex, joined at Reading by a “great summer army”. After much fighting the West Saxons make peace. The Great Army continues on its way.
• 871/2 Vikings winter at London: Croydon hoard deposited. [3]
• 872/3 Vikings winter at Torksey.
• 873/4 Vikings winter at Repton. [4] After this, the Vikings divide: Halfdan goes to Northumbria, wintering by the Tyne in 874/5. Guthrum, Oscetel, and Anwend, leave Repton in 874 and head for Cambridge.
• 874/5 Vikings winter in Cambridge.
• 875 Wessex invaded again.
• 876 Halfdan shares out Northumbrian lands among his followers, who settle and begin farming.
• 877 Mercia is divided between Ceolwulf, the king of “English” Mercia, and more members of the Great Army.
• 877/8 Vikings winter at Gloucester.
• 878 Guthrum’s force invades Wessex: Ælfred is driven into Somerset, where he takes refuge in the marshes of Athelney. He recoups and his forces defeat the Danish leader at Eddington. Guthrum and thirty of his leading men are baptised into the Christian faith, the ceremony being completed on the royal estate at Wedmore in Somerset. A separate Viking army which had been encamped at Fulham decides to spend the next decade ravaging France and the Low Countries instead.
• 878/9 The Danes winter at Cirencester, then head off to East Anglia later that year.
• 880 East Anglian land is shared out among member of the Great Army.

The Great Army Settles Down

• 886 The Treaty of Wedmore establishes a formal boundary between Ælfred’s Wessex and Guthrum’s East Anglia “up the Thames as far as the river Lea, then up the Lea to its source, and then straight up to Bedford, and them up the Ouse to Watling Street”. This was the Danelaw, in which Danish custom prevailed as opposed to English law. The treaty may date from as early as 880: Ælfred officially only occupied London in 886, but the numismatic evidence suggests that London had been under English control since about 874. From this time forth, Ælfred takes steps to defend his territory against further attacks and prepares to reconquer England. He has burgs or defended towns built, organises a militia system and commissions a fleet of fast ships.
• 890 Guthrum dies.
• 890s onward fresh groups of Vikings attacked Wessex but the Ælfred’s defensive measures prove sufficient.
• 892 The “Fulham” force comes back as the “great Danish Army” with 250 ships and establishes itself in Kent. Another army under a renowned leader Hasting lands at Milton also in Kent. However, they meet with little success.
• 896 The new Viking army disperses. Some settle in East Anglia and Northumbria: others sail to Normandy.
• 899 Ælfred dies.

Ælfred’s Legacy

• Approx 899Ælfred’s daughter Æthelflaed marries Æthelred, King of Mercia. First she and then Ælfred’s son Edward gradually reconquer the Danelaw. Raiders find other parts of Europe easier targets.
• 902 Vikings expelled from Dublin. Danes and Norwegians come into conflict.
• 919 Norse take control of York from the Danes.
• 920 Northumbrians and Scots submit to Edward.
• 937 The Battle of Brunanburh brings an end to Danish power in the north.
• 954 Erik Bloodaxe, last Viking king of York, is expelled from city.

Notes

1. Probably the island of Inispatrick off Dublin. [back]
2. This nickname has not been explained. Given the Viking sense of humour, it may be a reference to a “wood problem”. He might have had brittle bone disease. Or it may be some “in joke” which we’ll never understand. [back]
3. England had a full money economy where coins had an agreed face value and foreign issues were excluded from circulation. So hoards were likely to contain personal jewellery and valid current, local coinage. In contrast, Viking hoards may contain hack silver, coins from Wessex, Mercia and East Anglia, Arabic and Carolingian coins, ingots, and ornaments. [back]
4. 250 disarticulated bodies were buried around a single grave at Repton, Derbyshire. This is thought to be the grave of a Viking leader of the Great Army. The dead were mainly robust males aged 15-45, many of whom had previously sustained injuries but who did not appear to have died of their wounds. They may have been victims of an epidemic. [back]

www.yorksj.ac.uk/dialect/ Scanset.htm and The Rough Guide History of England by Robin Eagles

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