Most Saxons and Vikings wore the standard woollen overtunics that we all know and love, however this was not a universal style. This article will examine the evidence we have for four different styles of coats- the early Germanic “warrior jacket”, the two cuts of Eastern Viking kaftans and finally the female coat.

Obviously kaftans aren’t appropriate for all DAS characters. The warrior jacket was primarily popular before our period; the two kaftans are distinctively Eastern so should probably be used to draw attention to particular ethnicities or as a sign of having travelled in the Rus lands; and the female coat may never have even existed.

The Wrap-Around “Warrior” Jacket (Early Germanic)

History: Jackets with triangular overlapping front panels, possibly made of fur, are found in several sources. The Franks seem to have worn them waist-length, according to the Einhard’s description of Charlemagne and Hrabanus Maurus’s illustration of Louis the Pious. Meanwhile longer overlapping coats are illustrated on the Sutton Hoo and Swedish Vendel-period helmet plaques.

There are also tantalising hints of them in the archaeological evidence. There have been several fragments from Hedeby that have been interpreted as triangular front panels, whilst at Birka there are regularly penannular broaches or ringed pins found at hip-level. In 7th-century Saxon sites there have been several finds of tablet weaving running down the front of the body, which have been interpreted as edge decoration on a warrior jacket.

Thus it seems that the wrap-around jacket was popular fairly universally in Germanic areas, however by our period it is rather old-fashioned (if it exists at all). Precisely how the jacket came to Europe has not been ascertained: it is possible that it was adopted from nomadic tribes, or from the Near East by officers serving in the Late Roman Army, or from early expeditions Eastwards. The Sutton Hoo helmet was probably manufactured in Sweden, so it is possible that the wrap-around jacket also indicates Swedish links.

Design: The wrap-around jacket can be as long as a tunic, or can be shorter. It should probably be cut much like a tunic, with a simple rectangular back panel and separate arms (with standard under-arm gussets). However the normal rectangular front panel is replaced with two panels, both as wide as the back panel at the bottom but with diagonally cut front edges running up to the neck. There is generally no need to have side gussets with this design, but they can be added.

It can be held shut with a belt or with pins at hip-level. The panels are illustrated overlapping in both directions, although wearer’s left-over-right seems the most popular.

The jacket is often depicted with decoration on all the edges and at the cuffs- this could indicate embroidery, tablet-woven braid or fur trim.

Accessories: In some of the helmet plates the figures wearing this jacket also wear strange horned helmets, tipped with what could be ravens’ heads. They also tend to carry spears. As ravens and spears are both strongly associated with Odin, some people have suggested this means the wrap-around jacket had ritual significance.

Resources:

• Historiska Världar is a Swedish site, with pictures and patterns of a wrap-around jacket. Their design is rather more tailored than I’d use. http://histvarld.historiska.se/histvarld/draekter/vherreman/kaftan.html
• Penelope Walton Rogers’s Cloth and Clothing in Early Anglo-Saxon England (p.210-214) has an excellent discussion about the jacket, especially about English finds and possible origins. Ceolred Monger Thane may still have some copies of this book for sale.
• Meanwhile, Thor Ewing’s Viking Clothing (p.110-112) discusses the Viking and Frankish evidence for the warrior jacket. He calls it a “thorax”.

The Asymmetrical Riding Coat (Alannic, possibly also Rus?)

History: The nomadic Turkic cultures throughout Asia wore long caftan/kaftan/deel riding coats, as did some settled Iranian/Persian cultures. These were typically asymmetrical, with overlapping front panels. East Asian groups like the Mongols wore them with the opening on the wearer’s right; most people wore them with the opening on the left.

In Ibn Fadlan’s Risala he says the Rus wear “neither tunics nor caftans, but the men wear a garment which covers one side of the body and leaves a hand free” (i.e. just a cloak). However when describing the ship-burning funeral of a Rus king, he reports that “they dressed him in trousers, stockings, boots, a tunic, and kaftan of brocade with gold buttons. They put a hat of brocade and fur on him”. This suggests that standard clothes for the Rus might have been just a cloak, but that rich Rus also owned kaftans.

But what style kaftans would the Rus have worn? We’re not sure. But we do know what their neighbours wore. We are lucky that there have been a number of finds of Alan kaftans dating from our period, the 9th/10th centuries. As the Alans were one of the tribes the Rus Vikings would have had to contend with on the southern borders of their realm (the Byzantines are south of the Black Sea, the Alans are East, the Khazars are North-East and the Rus are North), there is a strong chance that Rus who had adopted a native style would have worn something similar to these Alans.

Design: The Alan kaftans are generally quite similar to each other. These all feature asymmetrical openings on the left, single lapels (on the outer panel), no standing collars and cloth frogs. They are cut with large underarm gussets- sometimes really obscenely large underarm gussets. They also have two slits down the back, from waist height to the bottom, allowing plenty of movement. The ‘skirt’ is cut separately from the ‘shirt’ and then attached. They are normally lined (often with fur), and feature bands of decoration down all exposed edges.

Frogging (cloth buttons and loops) seems to have spread from cultures in contact with the Khazars- such as the Bulgars, Alans and presumably also the Rus.

Accessories: Ibn Fadlan isn’t the only source to discuss Rus costume. The Hudud al-‘Alam (a 10th century geographical encyclopaedia) says about the Rus: “Out of 100 cubits of cotton fabric, more or less, they sew trousers which they put on, tucking them up above the knee. They wear woollen bonnets with tails let down behind their necks.” Ibn Rusta goes even further, and says they use 100 cubits per leg in their trousers! The Gotland picture-stones show these baggy trousers as generally knee-length, although some show them as ankle-length.

Taking these three sources together, the most distinctive Rus costume could include boots, exceedingly baggy trousers, asymmetrical kaftans and long pointy hats (decorated with fur or brocade). Of course, this could well be just the very best banqueting kit and everyday Rus kit was probably less extreme and more similar to standard Viking kit.

Rus Viking bling probably included silver granulated beads (found in hoards in Gotland as well as in Moscow) and belt decorations (common among nomadic groups in that part of Asia).

Resources:

• The Metropolitan Museum of Art has a lovely Alan linen-with-silk-trimmings kaftan which they published two excellent articles about in the Metropolitan Museum Journal Vol. 36 (2001). The first article is a conservator’s guide to the physical item including a pattern and photos of similar ones, and the second article is a guide to the historical context discussing kaftans across Asia. The articles are highly recommended. The kaftan is also shown on their website at: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/06/waa/ho_1996.78.1.htm
• The State Hermitage Museum has an even more spectacular Alan full-silk kaftan: http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_5_12a.html
• Peter Beatson of Miklagard in the New Varangian Guard has a wonderful set of Rus kit. He uses a symmetrical Birka-style kaftan (see below) rather than the cut discussed here, but he includes a pattern for this style. His pattern is a bit simpler than the Metropolitan Museum’s pattern, and looks good: http://www.miklagard.nvg.org.au/costume/rus/trader/rus_main.htm
• Thor Ewing’s Viking Clothing (p.108-109) discusses kaftans.

Symmetrical Birka-style Kaftan (Swedish/Gotlandic)

History: As well as the asymmetrical style of kaftan, there is also the centre-opening style. This is possibly a more Iranian-Islamic cut.
This design seems to have become popular among Swedish Vikings, and there have been several possible finds of symmetrical coats in Viking contexts. A complete Viking kaftan has not yet been recovered, however several graves at Birka have featured central lines of cast bronze buttons (from 4-24 of them) from neck to waist. There are also some beautifully embroidered cuffs and a collar from Valsgärde graves 12 and 15 that may have been mounted on symmetrical coats originally.

Design: The symmetrical kaftan is an easier cut than the asymmetrical, as it is essentially just a slightly long tunic that’s been cut all the way down the middle. Re-enactors normally slit the kaftan up the rear, as it probably originated as a riding coat and a rear slit make riding easier.

Based on the evidence from the Valsgärde grave, several re-enactors use standing collars on their kaftans rather than conventional tunic neck-openings.

Accessories: Swedish and Gotlandic Vikings had closer links with the East than Norse/Danes, and seem to share many characteristics with the Rus described above. Baggy trousers are shown on Gotland picture stones, and silver granulated beads are common in Gotland silver hoards. All these can be used to emphasis the more Eastern-facing culture of the Swedish Vikings, and to distinguish them from Danes and Norse.

Resources:

• Peter Beatson of Miklagard in the New Varangian Guard has photos of his wonderful symmetrical Birka-style kaftan, along with useful patterns: http://www.miklagard.nvg.org.au/costume/rus/trader/rus_main.htm
• A Medieval Wardrobe shows photos and a pattern for a kaftan. Their photos show a particularly good button arrangement, similar to nomadic frogging (but the red thread could be a bit longer?) However ideally the neck hole should be smaller: http://www.gelfling.dds.nl/viking%20kaftanm.html
• Thor Ewing’s Viking Clothing (p.108-109) discusses kaftans.

Female Coats

History: Female coats are fairly conjectural, and largely based on the evidence of broaches. In Viking finds, as well as the pair of tortoiseshell broaches that hold up the hanging dress, many graves include a central trefoil or circular broach (or, for Gotlandic ladies, a box-shaped broach). These may have held together coats, or they may have held together a shawl.

There is some evidence for a different style of female coat in an earlier period to DAS, a Continental style that was popular in Kent in the 6th century.

Design: There is no definitive evidence, iconographic or archaeological, for female coats in the main DAS period. If they exist at all, the archaeological evidence suggests they were held together by a central broach- there are no female graves with buttons that I know of. Some re-enactors have cut them as basically the same as the male symmetrical kaftan, whilst others have modified them slightly by rounding off the bottom front corners.

Women interested in the 6th century Kentish/Continental coat should consult Penelope Walton Rogers’s book.

Accessories: Viking female coats (if they exist) don’t come from any particular region so can be combined with any female Viking costume.

Resources:

• A Medieval Wardrobe has photos of a coat, along with pictures, patterns and quotes gathered from lots of other sources. If you want to make a female coat, this is the only site you need: http://www.gelfling.dds.nl/
• On the other hand, Thor Ewing’s Viking Clothing (p.50-52) dismisses any evidence for female Viking coats.
• Penelope Walton Rogers’s Cloth and Clothing in Early Anglo-Saxon England (p.190-193) discusses everything you might need to know about the Kentish/Continental coat of the 6th century.

From the 2008 DASmag article by Hauk the Bastard.

In the Beginning there was nothing but an abyss in space; no golden sand, no crashing waves, no nourishing soil nor a blade of grass and no sky to cover it all.

Many ages passed and there gradually existed a place of clouds and shodows, called Niflheim, to the north of the abyss and from there twelve rivers of glacial water flowed. Meanwhile, to the south of the abyss, a place of fire gradually existed, called Muspellsheim, and from here issued forth many rivers of bitter poison, that slowly came to set and become solid.

Somewhere in the centre of the abyss, the twleve icy rivers came into contact with the solidified rivers of fire and formed a thick covering of hoar-frost. As the warm air from Muspellsheim came into contact with the ice from Niflheim, there formed tepid droplets that gave rise to a giant, Ymir, in human form: the first of all beings and father of all giants.

As Ymir lay sleeping, bathed in sweat, there was born a man and a woman (giants) from his armpit. Ymir drank from the udders of the cow Audumla (the wet nurse of the giants) and she licked the ice, drawing nourishment from the salt water. As the ice melted under her enourmous tongue, so a living being was uncovered: Buri, father of Bor.

Bor married Bestla, one of the giants’ daughters and they in turn produced the three gods, Odin, Vili and Ve. These three began a great struggle with the giants that could only end in annihilation and indeed, Ymir’s blood filled the abyss and drowned all the giants except Bergelmir and his wife who managed to escape and eventually create the new race of giants.

Ymir’s body was raised from the sea by the son’s of Bor and formed the earth called Midgard (middle abode) which was halfway between Niflheim and Muspellsheim. His flesh became the land, his blood the sea, his bones the mountains and his hair the trees. His skull they raised up on four pillars and placed inside, the sparks from Muspellsheim, where they created the sun and the moon and many stars.

The gods set the day and the night and the duration of the year and from the warmth and light of the sun, green blades of grass grew from the earth. As the other gods joined the sons of Bor, they created their celestial dwelling place and named it Asgard (abode of the Aesir). A beautiful bridge was built between Asgard and Midgard and became known as Bifrost (rainbow).

From Ymir’s rotting corpse came forth grubs and so the gods made these into dwarves and they lived under the earth and stone that Ymir’s body had become.

Man was created from the vegetable world, where two lifeless tree trunks were happened upon by Odin, Hoenir and Lodr. Odin gave the breath; Hoenir gave them a soul and reasoning and Lodr gave them warmth and life. From the man, Ask (Ash), and the woman, Embla (vine), came forth the race of man.

Midgard was a vast circumference surrounded by water in which lived an enormous reptile; the Serpent of Midgard, whose massive coils encircled the earth. Beneath Midgard lived the giants and drawves and there was the domain of Hel, the Goddess of death, guarded by Garm, a monstrous dog who ensured that no living being entered.

Up through the centre of the once abyss, lived Yggdrasil, an enormous ash (the tree of life), that had it’s roots in Niflheim Muspellsheim, the land of giants, Hel’s domain and the place of peace where the gods met to render justice.

Near the root in Niflheim gushed the fountain Hvergelmir, the bubbling source of the primitive rivers and near the root in the land of giants, flowed Mimir, the fountain of wisdom from which Odin drank, for the price of one eye.

In the place of peace, there poured the fountain of youth, watched over by Urd, the wisest of the Norns.

Gossip of the Gods by Freyja Eriksdottir, DASmag Winter 2003

Origins of the Runes

The origins of the runic shapes themselves are from the bronze age and were ideographs used by their priest or magicians. They were abstract graphic expressions of the innermost contents of their religious and magical teachings.

The origins of the runic systems we know today are from the folklore of the Germanic, Gothic, Indo-European and Nordic tribes, the similar folklore behind the mysteries and their meanings are evident in all the cultures mentioned.

It was said that the god Odin hung from the tree of Yggdrasill for nine nights, as a form of self sacrifice. As he approached and sank into the realm of death, he received the secrets of the multiverse (i.e. the runes themselves). In a flash of inspiration he returned from that realm and knew it was his function to teach the runes to certain followers (i.e. the gods Tyr/Thor and Freya) in order to bring wider consciousness, wisdom, magic, poetry and inspiration to Midhgardhr and to all the other worlds.

The runic system may have been developed as early as 200BCE. It is certain that the magio-religious practices of the ancient Germanic priesthood were aided by the use of many runic signs.

There are three different types of runic tables (i.e. Futharks), starting with the Germanic futhark, known as the Elder futhark, which has 24 staves (i.e. runes). This system was mostly used by the Germanic tribes. As the tribes migrated and traded with other cultures we find that the Anglo-Saxon and Younger futharks emerged from the Elder futhark. The main difference between these futharks is in the number of staves represented in each one, the Anglo-Saxon has 33 staves, whilst the Younger futhark has on;y 18 staves. It is also noted that all these cultures have the same gods (i.e. Odhinn – old Germanic, Odin – Nordic and Woden or Wodan – old English/Anglo-Saxon:this pre-dates Christian Saxons), although his name was pronounced differently.

These futharks were used not only as a writing system by these cultures, they also employed their uses in the art of divination and in pagan or magical rites; there are many inscriptions across the European continent to support this.

Source: Rune Lore and their modern meanings by Njall Thorenson, DASmag Summer 1996

As most people in the DAS will have noticed by now, I tend to enjoy the occasional board game during the evening’s banquet. Much, it could be said, as fish enjoy the occasional swim. I have decided therefore, to write up rules for some of the more common games from our period, thus allowing me in future to pester anyone at the banqueting table nearby for a game. This will probably come as a relief to Finn, who may be getting somewhat tired of seeing his platter and bowl swept away as I bring out my gaming board.

Whilst board games are mentioned in sagas and poems from the period, such mentions rarely if ever give us an idea as to how the game was actually played. The rules would also vary from place to place, as regional variants would almost certainly have developed as the game spread. The word tafl, Old Norse for ‘table’, usually forms part of the name of each game. For example; hnefatafl or ‘kings’ table’, hræðtafl or ‘quick table, etc.

Pieces were often hemispherical and made from such materials as bone, glass, clay, stone or even horses teeth. They were divided into sides by colour, usually one dark side and one light. King pieces were usually a different shape to distinguish them from the others.

Halatafl (Fox Table)

This game, more commonly known as ‘Fox and Geese’, is mentioned in the Icelandic Grettis Saga, which was written in the fourteenth century by an anonymous priest who lived in the north of the island.

The board used for this game is the same as a normal solitaire game. Thirteen ‘geese’ are placed on the board as shown, the ‘fox’ is then placed on any vacant space.

The fox moves one space at a time in any direction, except diagonally. Instead of a normal move, he can capture a goose by jumping over it, provided the space immediately behind it is empty. The geese move individually, one goose per turn, but may not jump over the fox to capture him. Instead they must pen him in so that he cannot move or jump. They are also forbidden to move backwards and lose if the fox is able to get behind them.

To me, halatafl demonstrates the problems of trying to recreate the original rules of such an old game. It will soon become plain to anyone who plays this game that the geese, if played sensibly, will always win. In fact they should do so without losing a single piece. Whilst it is not uncommon for games of this period to favour one side over the other, there is a reason why I think the original game was played with different rules. We know that the early sets consisted of thirteen geese and one fox, royal accounts of Edward IV (1461-83) mention two sets consisting of “two foxis and 26 hounds of silver overgilt.” However, shortly after 1600 four extra geese were added to the game, two each along the sides of the cross arms as shown below.

I find it hard to believe that players of the game were so inept as not to have noticed the ease with which the geese can win. Either different rules were used, which gave the fox more of an advantage, or people were getting fed up with someone saying; “Just give me one more go as the fox, I think I’ve got another idea…”

Merels or Nine Men’s Morris

This game is my favourite and probably the most commonly found board game from the period. It has been found on the backs of other game boards, on ship’s timbers, benches and even carved into rocks. Unfortunately we don’t know what title it had during our time period; the Latin name of Merels came into use shortly after Anglo-Saxon times. The board is marked out with three concentric squares, linked through the middle of each side.

The game is divided into three separate phases, although the aim in each phase is the same; to form a line of three of your men, known as a mill.

In the first phase each player takes it in turn to place one of their nine men onto the board, either on a corner or where two or more lines connect. If one player is able to form a mill then he may remove an opposing piece. This piece should not, if possible, be taken from an existing mill; any piece removed from the board is lost for the rest of the game.

When all pieces have been placed on the board, then the second phase of the game begins. Players take it in turn to move one of their men along the lines from one intersection or corner to an adjacent spot.

Pieces may not jump over others and if no man can be moved, then that player automatically loses. On completion of a mill then another opposing piece is taken as before. This continues until one player is left with only three men.

In the third and final phase a player with only three men may move one piece each turn to any empty point on the board. When a player is down to only two men, they have lost the ame.

In the above rules, there is nothing to stop a player forming a mill, moving a piece away and then moving it back again in subsequent moves. To make for a more strategic and interesting game players can agree to use the following extra rule. Before a mill can be reformed, at least two of the men in that mill have to be moved.

DARK AGE BOARD GAMES (part one of an occasional series by Valgard Ulriksonnr) – DASmag Spring 1999

ANGLO-SAXON ART presents itself in their metalwork, jewellery, manuscripts and sculpture and the influence of the Celts, Christianity and the Vikings, all contributed towards the differing styles.

Quoit-Brooch Style Found chiefly in Kent and the south-east, the crouching quadruped is seen in profile while the double contoured body is covered with a fur detail of slight incisions and occasionally has spiral hips. The lips form an outward curved line with an often open mouth.

Style I The zoological reality of the animals becomes more of a pattern with a mass of confusion of heads, legs, tails and teeth covering every available space on the surface.

Style II/Ribbon Style Scroll patterns and foliage motifs appear with a development of the previous style. Ribbon like bodies of animals and snakes nterlace and interplay and animal and tendril ornament covers every surface with some animals degenerating into foliage. There is still no realism and symmetry is adhered to or abandoned at will.

Fusion Style

A gentle mixture of styles I and II fusing both the disjointed and interlaced patterns.

Polychrome

Originating from Kent and East Anglia, polychrome jewellery is most commonly presented as disc brooches and there are two distinct standards. The first is the most luxurious and uses a base plate of gold or silver, built up with bands of metal into gold or silver cells (cloison), with flat-cut stones and coloured glass set into them.

Between the cells are panels of filigree-wire ornament and the item’s border may also be made up with filigree. In order to add sparkle to the flat stones, the cells may be lined with a small piece of stamped foil, that reflects the light at different angles.

The humbler type is found with the base plate and cells cast in one piece, with a serrated edge imitating the filigree. The cells are still filled with garnets but the coloured glass rarely occurs.

Celtic

The relics of the Sutton Hoo ship burial (7th century) and the Lindisfarne Gospels (about 690 British Museum, London) have typical Celtic ornamental patterns, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs.

Christianity

In the manuscripts of southern England, in particular those produced at Winchester and Canterbury, a different style emerged in the 9th century, with delicate, lively pen-and-ink figures and heavily decorative foliage borders.

Trewhiddle Animals and other ornamental motifs defined by shallow carving, are speckled with the corner of the engraving tool, as the Trewhiddle horn mounts (below) demonstrate.

VIKING ART is presented through six main styles and these are listed below with a general idea of their time period.

Broa/Oseberg 22 gilt-bronze bridle mounts from a male grave in Broa, Gotland, were covered in curvaceous animals with small heads and a multitude of tendrils – traditional Scandinavian artistic style. However, on a few of these mounts appeared a new style of animal; the gripping beast, so called because its paws grip itself, another or the frame surrounding it.
From the royal ship burial at Oseberg, Norway we have the ship, wagon, sledges, bedsteads and animal-head posts and we can see that the gripping beast motif has fully developed while there remains the traditional, controlled, design of gently curving animals.

Borre Bronze bridle mounts found in the Norwegian ship burial in Borre, Vestfold reveal the evolved gripping beast, with its mask-like animal head, ribbon like body and ever present gripping paws. Examples have been found that were produced in Russia, England and Iceland, demonstrating the extent to which the style spread across the Norse world.
Jellinge The silver cup found in the Danish royal burial chamber in Jellinge, Denmark has the S-shaped animals with intertwined ribbon bodies forming an open interlace pattern, with heads in profile, pigtail and curling upper lip that are distinctive Jelling style characteristics.

Mammen The battle axe found in a grave in Mammen, Jutland shows a more naturalistic proportioned body has developed and the beginning of foliate patterns, as on the axe. A development of body infil is evident with the increase in size and a human mask can be seen on both the axe and the Bamberg casket.

Ringerike The Alstad stone from Ringericke, Norway demonstrates a much greater use of foliate and tendril patterns and much more realistic images of birds, horses and dogs, but we can still see an enormous use of spiral hips.
Urnes Woodcarvings found at the little church of Urnes, Norway show extremely stylized animals are being used, their heads and feet elongated terminals, though still with the spiral hips. The foliate patterns have evolved into thin ribbons snaking their way around and ending in a bud-like device.

As a former follower of Aelfric the Picky, I aspire to perfect representations of kit and costume. Being also though very much a fan of DAS’s informality and inclusivity I do not hold with rigid rules and regulations on what you must/must not have (or how much you must spend) to participate. I err on the side of “if it looks and feels right it’s good, lets have fun”!

The following is my guide to how to put together acceptable DAS banqueting kit. Of course, if you have time, money and inclination there are more serious replicas that can be bought or made. The scope is broad but if you find me on a Sunday morning modifying your multi-coloured car boot sale bargain goblet set with my sword pommel you will understand you have transgressed!

Basic kit should comprise (see minimum standards in the handbook) – Bowl, cup, spoon and knife. I will take these in turn giving background and practical suggestions.

Bowls and cups: One cup and two bowls are useful: drink/stew/extras – three medium sized bowls will do. Potential materials are wood, ceramic, soapstone, metal and horn. Wooden originals were in indigenous wood either pole-lathe turned or hewn/carved. Expect to pay about £5 – £20 for a wooden bowl in a ‘kitchen reject’ type shop.

Beware exotic woods – some woods (e.g. sandalwood) are aromatic and will taint food. Try craft fairs for hobbyist turners, I find telling them what we do gets a sympathetic discount to about £10 -£25 and offers to make stuff to order. There are currently some very nice carved bowls from Africa around, try Oxfam and other Trade Fair outlets (c.£12 up). Car boot sales turn up wooden bowls, watch out for cracks and prior use which may have tainted them and clean them thoroughly. Habitat sometimes has reasonable deals on the right stuff and check out their wooden spoons.

There used to be a fashion in DAS for ‘eating boards’. Simply a wooden board, these allowed messy stuff – candles, fish, butter, cheese, brisling, fnurd etc.- to be kept off the tables and was something to dramatically bang your knife into during ‘general shouting’. I had an 8″ x 18″ piece of 1″ thick beech for some years until someone gutted 50 trout on it then left it in chicken shit at West Stow, chiz, chiz. A simple bread board would do.

Wash wood as soon as you can after use, preferably without detergent, if necessary lightly scour and dry it thoroughly. A smear with vegetable oil should stop mould and cracks. If in doubt ask Anir for advice.

Ceramics were generally unglazed light coloured ware (grey or yellow fabric not red) hand raised or thrown on a medium to slow wheel. Decorated pots from our period, notably Badorf/Pingsdorf ware, were rare, very distinctive and best avoided. DAS has benefited from members making pots in the past, notably Godwin and Ulrik. Years ago, I did a couple of terms of night school where I made pots, some of which are still around. Trading these in DAS paid for the course and materials. If anyone is willing to take the challenge I can help with source material. Unglazed pots are porous so beware of bacterea, it is acceptable to glaze inside for health reasons (apparently in the USA it is illegal not to).

There are few modern substitutes which look absolutely right. There are some excellent handmade pots from Africa around in Oxfam, etc., at the moment. These are though (correctly) fired to a brittle fabric which does not lend itself to carting around to DAS halls. Some cheap aromatherapy lamps have a small cup of the right shape and texture.

There are some splendid examples of bronze and silver vessels from our period. As these were used to show off wealth and patronage of the arts, there are few ‘off the peg’ modern substitutes which will do. Please either keep it subtle (Anir’s bowl is an excellent example) or avoid. If using copper or brass be aware that, unless you have the guts of Beorn, verdigris is poisonous so clean well.

Soapstone is spot-on for Vikings. There are currently some simple soapstone bowls being imported from Nigeria. I am told by a geologist it is whiter & pinker than Northern European varieties, which have a grey/purple look, but, if chosen carefully, will pass. Prices are around £9 – £20 for a small bowl. Soapstone is porous and can leach heavy metals so do not leave acidic liquid standing for long.

Leather – apart from an interesting ceramic vessel moulded in the form of a leather bottle, there is little evidence for use of leather for cups etc.. In any case, the alternatives are so much more practical for our purposes. Best avoided. Natural horns are obvious drinking vessels and characteristic period pieces. Again, decorative horn mounts are distinctive so be careful. There is still absolutely no evidence of any sort for horn stands! Please care for your horn – recent advice (MAFF Sept. 1998) indicates there are no specific identified health risks from drinking horns. Periodically clean with a sterilising liquid – baby bottle stuff is ideal (alarm your friends – start browsing the supemarket baby section!), I am told Coca Cola does the trick but prefer something more controlled. Don’t use hot liquid in or on a horn, this can separate the layers and soaking can dissolve it – to make glue, boil horn! Fabricated horn cups etc. – again no evidence, best leave well alone.

Glass is again very distinctive. There was no glass manufacturing facility in England (there was re-cycling) until the tenth century. All vessels were imported and therefore expensive. Typical shapes are the ‘palm cup’ or ‘cone beaker’ neither of which stand up on their own so don’t lend themselves to modern decor. There are specialist re-enactment suppliers, see me for details! Some ‘close but no cigar’ items are in the Fair Trade shops at the moment – recycled glass has the right feel and subdued colours (amber, light blue or green) so keep looking.

Knives:Archaeology reveals knives of different sizes and shapes. There are though two common features – single edge and no rivets. Blades are usually triangular section, straight edged and clipped back from the point. Handles can be wood, horn, antler or bone. As knives are essential I suggest the best readily available compromise is a small paring knife for about £1.50 – avoid ‘stay sharp’ serrated blades – I can tolerate ‘made in Sheffield’ and the brass rivets. Anir and others sometimes have excellent more accurate examples for sale, otherwise you will need to contact specialist re-enactment dealers at around £15 – £50. Unless taking part in a living history display do not wear or carry a sharp knife out of the hall, it can give the wrong impression. I have seen one snatched in fun on the assumption it was blunt with the intention of drawing it across the carriers throat!

The image shows various 9th-10th century knives at half size. A) 10th century blade from York and a 10th century bone handle from Carlisle. B) Complete 9th-10th century knife with wooden handle and brass suspension loop from Gotland. C) 10th century knife with bone handle from York. Note how the tang projects from either end; I reconstructed this with wooden caps to wedge the tang into and this held the knife together tightly. D) knife with wooden handle from York 10th century.

Spoons:Metal spoons have a distinct reversed bowl shape attached to a separately made handle which makes them awkward to represent. I have found pickle spoons and salad servers which look the part. Museum souvenir manufacturers make silver plated and pewter Roman spoons which are OK but rather small for most appetites. There are some copies of cast bronze examples at around £16. Horn spoons are not known from the archaeology. Bone spoons tend to be small due to the nature of the raw material. Wooden spoons, where found, are hand carved and often decorated. A cheap modern wooden kitchen spoon, subtly altered to disguise its machine made origin has always been the most effective DAS solution.

The image shows various 9th-10th century spoons at 1:3. A) and B) wooden spoons; York 10th-11th century. C) bone spoon from York; 10th century. D) and E) bone spoons from Thetford; 9th-10th century. F) Iron double spoon with tin coating; York 10th century. G) Suggested modification of baking type shop bought spoon; cut of the end with a hole in and scrape down the handle and bowl to give it a more faceted look; rather than machine made smooth surfaces.

Jugs: See pottery. To be encouraged as they help keep cans and bottles out of the way. Choose the shape and colour carefully.

Lighting: For our period there is evidence for beeswax, tallow and oil for lighting. King Alfred is credited with the invention of a candle clock and apparently candles made from lumps of wax (ie. not dipped) have been found in Dublin and Scandinavia. I have never investigated this evidence personally but it is good enough for me. There are though no candlesticks, instead bowl shaped lamps have been found and illustrated. These were free standing, wall mounted or suspended (see Ulrik’s old DASMAG article). There are also ‘prickerts’ or spikes for sticking candles on. Safety issues involving naked flames dictate we should avoid oil lamps and use candles in secure holders, a small bowl is useful. Please provide a candle holder as it helps clear up afterwards if there aren’t great gobbets of wax on the tabletops.

The image shows a photo of my own glass drinking cups and pottery candle holders; these can be bought from Murton park, me or even hand made by yourself. You can buy air clay in a yellow/grey colour in “the Works” for a few quid and have a go, it doesn`t need firing and is reasonably easy. See right for different shapes.

Table cloths: Packs should provide a table covering for pragmatic reasons. They avoid the shiny melamine experience, help clear up and stop potential damage to table tops. They are illustrated in Anglo-Saxon contexts. Calico curtain lining or polycotton sheeting should last at least a season and be reasonably cheap. Hot wash after use!

Some definate no-no’s: Daggers, tankards, quaiches, glazed ceramics, most goblets and almost anything from a shoppe called ‘Ye Olde ….’.

Warning: Remember you will have to transport all this. I have broken four glass vessels, one hand made pottery jug, three pottery cups and two pottery lamps in transit to events.

Naming: Eating kit is the most common lost property group. Carve or paint your DAS name or appropriate sign on your stuff, it then stands a good chance of finding it’s way back to you.

Conclusion: Eating stuff from our period is distinctive. With thought there are though modern items which will do. Care should be taken selecting items to avoid making the table look and feel wrong. A probationary/full member is expected to have: Two wooden bowls, a wooden spoon and a knife. You ought to be able to buy acceptable examples of these new in a lunchtime for under £20.

Some years ago I helped to compile an article on Anglo-Saxon food, for a DASmag. Since then, new research has been done on the subject of the diet of Dark Age Man, and Ann Hagen has recently published A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food – Processing and consumption. In truth, little more is revealed on the shopping list of Dark Age eating but it does bring many other associated topics under its cover, such as feasting, fasting and dietary deficiency.

The book has been split into two sections under the headings of Processing and consumption, finishing with a conclusion and appendices. This is not a cook’s book. There are a few recipes and I thought rather ‘woolly’ information concerning food items and cooking methods often derived from Medieval sources. One of the most tantilising items is surely the description of the preperation to make a sage omelette, taken from an Anglo-Saxon leechdom (medical document). If only she had added a few further dishes. On the other hand, the section on pickling seems to be pure supposition. The achievement of this book is to bring a lot of material under one cover, with innumerable references to the source material for those keen enough to follow them up.

As an alternative source of information, I decided to take a look at Old English riddles. Here food items can be identified, although the solutions are hinted at through innuendo: a wineskin, red wine, onion, mead, barley, a bullock, a cock/hem, dough, a butter-churn, oysters and garlic. A good meal could certainly be arranged from these items. Some other manuscripts also provide information of processing and end products. A translation from Soloman and Saturn II reads, “a chunk of food falls to the floor, is picked up, blessed and covered with pickle and eaten.” (I would suggest that the blessing was due to the morsel not falling buttered side down!) The word translated as ‘pickle’ is also sometimes translated as ‘seasoning’ but what was this pickle or seasoning? We don’t know and are unlikely to find out, unless an unopened jar is found.

Notes on bread

Bread was a staple part of the Dark Age diet – when it was available. There were household bakers, communal bakehouses and commercial bakers to ensure a constant supply. Loaves were used in payment of rent or wages and the old English words hlaefdige (lady) and hlaford (lord) are all derived from the word hlaf meaning raised loaf.

When it came to bread-making, there was a marked preference for the lighter textured white wheaten loaf, which was not available to all. Locality or poverty made it a rare commodity for some folk. In milder parts of the country, both spring and winter wheat could be sown; the latter was the more highly prized, (under the Romans, Britain was a major wheat producer). Other cereals grown were rye, barley and oats. Sometimes a mixed crop of wheat and rye was grown as a winter crop, to produce loaves of mixed grains with names such as monkes corn, masdeline and meslin (meslin means mixed, maybe half rye, half barley).

A lighter loaf was not easy to achieve with English wheat, which is low in gluten, and additions of other grains certainly didn’t improve the texture. Barley makes a flat, grey, dry loaf, so was used to make the flat barley bannocks in areas such as Wales, Northern England and Scotland, where wheat growing was difficult. Barley imparts a good flavour and is also the source of malt for beer.

Rye, when used in bread-making, makes a dense loaf which is well flavoured, however, its gluten content, although good, is not comparable to wheat. It could also be a little hazardous if infected with the ergot fungus, the raw material for LSD.

Oatmeal was the cereal that could be grown in the wetter and more northerly parts of Britain. Oaten breads are well flavoured, with a good fat content. They are nearly always flat griddle-baked bannocks or oatcakes and weigh heavily on the stomach.

Mixing any of the above cereals to taste or availability was frequently done and in times of shortages, beans, tares, lentils, acorn flour, hazel flour and alder flour, were also added to eke out a meagre supply.

All harvested cereals need to be stored, either on the stalk in stooks or as dried and flailed grains. In this state it could be stored for many months, if kept cool and dry. Once milled the flour could be stored for a limited time before going rancid; only about three weeks. This meant milling just enough flour for current needs only. It has been suggested to me, by a miller, that grain storage without temperature and humidity controlled conditions, would make supply viable for approximately six months, thus making bread a seasonal food, even in years of a good crop.

The Romans introduced water-powered mills and by the Doomsday survey, some six thousand were established in England. Otherwise, milling was done by pounding in a hollowed stone with a pestle, in a saddle quern, or by a hand powered mill. The prefered material for quern and handstones had to be imported, as it was the Neidermendig lava stone, fragments of which have been found on many Saxon sites and in Viking York. Poorer folk would have used locally available grinding stones. The fineness of the flour was dependant on the number of times it was sieved or bolted and it is probable that only the richer members of society would have regularly used fine grades of flour.

The question arises, did they use yeast? It seems likely from the available evidence, but there can be no certainty. The ‘dough riddle’ from the Exeter Book can be taken as evidence for yeast if we have guessed the correct solution. To quote the riddle, the dough “…thrusts, rustles, raises its hat.” But, not even modern yeast would give this effect! Yeast, if it was used, would most likely have been the by-product of brewing, or the sour-dough method could have been used (a piece of fermented dough was kept from the previous day’s baking and used to ferment the next batch).

Ann Hagen offers us the startling piece of information that loaves could be large or – yes you’ve guessed it – small. They could also be made into rolls as well as loaves. Methods of cooking bread ranged from baking on hot stones or on an iron griddle (perhaps for unleavened bread), under an inverted pot covered in embers, or baked in a clay oven for an ofen baocan hlaf (oven-baked loaf). A plain loaf may have been seasoned with seeds such as poopy, dill, caraway, fennel or sweet cicely. The dough could be enriched with butter, cream, milk, eggs; also sweetened with honey and fruits. Such a loaf would probably be reserved for high days and holidays.

Meat, Poultry and Fish

The domesticated animal remains that are most common on archaeological sites from our period are: cattle, horses, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, cats, dogs and bees. These were augmented by fishing and by hunting of wild beasts and birds. It is possible that of all the domestic animals kept, pigs were the most numerous. Although fewer pigs’ bones have been found this would be the case if they were eaten as bacon; having been slaughtered, boned and salted elsewhere. Cattle and sheep (excluding cattle used as draught animals) were obviously kept for dairy products and meat. Young animals – lamb, veal and kid – were also eaten, as only enough animals to replace older beasts would be kept, the rest of the young were surplus; to be sold or consumed. Extra animals would require more fodder.

There is evidence for areas of the southwest of England to have specialised in the production of cattle; where the weather was mild and pastures were rich. Religious establishments also had an interest in cattle production – for velum from the calves’ skins. Animals would have been slaughtered by their owners or by a professional butcher. By the end of the tenth century oxen had to be slaughtered in the presence of two witnesses, probably to suppress cattle theft. The meat would have been consumed locally, either cooked or preserved. An excess may have been sold in butchers shops, which were in use by the end of the period (flaesc straet and flaescmangere). Meat was hung and jointed, the brain and tongue were extracted from all meat animals and bones were split to obtain the marrow. It seems that hooves and lower legs were considered as waste.The use of offal has not been found in manuscripts and leaves no archaeological evidence.

Other animals eaten included wild boar, red deer, hare, beaver and bear (the last two were becoming scarce but as yet there was no restriction on who could hunt). Regarding horse-meat, Christian Anglo-Saxons did not eat it as it was considered a food of pagans. But, we know that the Vikings did eat horses, even if it was their transport!

Poultry was kept for eggs and meat: chicken, ducks (mallards) and geese (grey lag). Other birds found were: common crane, golden plover, grey plover, black grouse, wood pigeon and lapwing. These were the wild birds caught locally to add a bit of variety to the diet.

Lastly, fish and shellfish. Many remains have been recovered from Jorvik (Eoforwic in Anglian) oysters in substantial numbers, cockles, mussels and winkles (in smaller amounts). Saltwater fish: cod, herring, haddock, flatfish, ling and horse mackerel. Freshwater fish: pike, roach, rudd, bream and perch. Along with smelt, eels and salmon. Archaeologically, no fish nets or traps have been found but iron fish-hooks with long lines have been recovered. However, from the coastal site of Hamtonwic, in decline by the 840s, little seafood has been found. The food remains were beef, mutton and pork. This may indicate national preferences (Saxons didn’t like fish?).

Dairy Products

Fresh dairy products were a seasonal bounty and could be preserved in the forms of cheese and butter; in winter fresh milk would be very scarce. The milk obtained from cows, ewes and goats was used to make cream (fletan), possibly clotted cream, butter (buteran) and cheese (cese). The by-products, buttermilk and whey were either drunk or processed again into cheese and butter respectively. Butter was salted or unsalted, as was cheese. In both cases the salt was used as a preservative. About twenty to thirty pints of milk are needed to make one pound of butter.

Whole milk was a luxury drink, more often it was drunk semi-skimmed. Ascetics tended to drink milk rather than intoxicating beverages, often adding water. Using milk the following delights could have been made:: syllabubs (comprising fresh milk or cream and wine or cider or ale, made into a frothy liquid, sweetened and flavoured), sweet curds or junkets (a type of milk pudding of milk and rennet, sweetened and flavoured), frumenty (a kind of porridge, spiced, sweetened and enriched with cream or egg yolks). The above are traditional English dishes and evidence of their early consumption cannot be verified.

Dairy work was, like bread-making, woman’s work; the churning, the making of butter and cheese, then the selling of the produce in the towns. According to various leechdoms, butter was far better than milk for ‘boiling’ herbs in and for cooking vegetables.

Cheese could be soft or hard. Rennet was available for the coagulation process, though plants could also be used, such as the flowers of wild thistle, safflower seeds and lady’s bedstraw. Some cheeses were eaten fresh and others were stored salted, these were produced either on a domestic scale or they were made in quantity on a large estate, for consumption or for sale locally. Some cheese may have been smoked in storage but wherther this was incidental or intended we cannot tell, as they could be
stored by hanging under the roof, to keep from vermin whilst maturing. Cheese (and occasionally butter) has been recorded as a food rent, like bread.

Vegetables

There seem to be few vegetable remains and even less written about them, the Viking dig at Yorkrevealed carrots, parsnips, celery and possibly brassicas (cabbage family). Another source adds cabbages, onions and leeks. Two Old English riddles give us onion and garlic as answers. Therefore I consulted a guide to edible wild plants, as many have a long tradition of being eaten and we can probably assume that this trend stretches back to the Dark Ages. Doubtless, during times of meagre stores any extra bulk that could be added to a meal supplied from field, garden or hedgerow, would have been used. To this end I have listed below plants that are either native or introduced by the Romans and all have a tradition of being eaten.

• Bargeman’s cabbage (brassicas campestris) – an introduction of unknown date. Cabbages have been collected for their roots, leaves and seeds used as a condiment. The plants were later selectively bred for their roots; the modern turnip. Brassica oleraceus – the ‘wild’ cabbage, was originally found on rocky coasts and would have been a cultivated crop inland. After several seasons of careful cultivation and seed selection, decent specimens of many wild plants can be obtained.
• Charlock (field mustard) – native. A cabbage-type plant that has been used as fodder, but has been cooked in milk in the Hebrides and Ireland in times of shortage.
• Sea kale – native. A shore plant that was a favoured vegetable of the Romans. It is rather scarce now, but still considered a local delicacy where it is available.
• Water cress – native. Well known for its medicinal properties.
• Garlic mustard – native. Leaves and shoots are eaten.
• Bladder campion – native. The young shoots are eaten.
• Chickweed – native. The leaves and stems are eaten.
• Hastate orache – native. Much prized by the ancient Greeks as a pot herb.
• Wood sorrel – native. A pot herb and can be used to curdle milk to make cheese.
• Broom – native. (Not Spanish broom which is very poisonous.) The young buds are eaten as a vegetable and they formed an essential ingredient in beer making before the introduction of hops (they give the bitter tang).
• Silverweed – native. Grown by the Anglo-Saxons as a root crop, known to have been continuously used in parts of northern Scotland as a reserve crop in time of shortage.
• Saladburnet – native. Used fresh and also as a fodder plant.
• Cow parsley (wild chervil) – native. Young shoots can be used.
• Sweet cicely – introduced by the Romans. All parts of the plant can be used. The seeds are widely used for flavouring.
• Earth nuts (pig nut) – native. Beloved by pigs! This plant has root tubers that are hazel nut sized.
• Fennel – probably introduced. Leaves, shoots, seeds and bulb can be used. The Emperor Charlemagne had this vegetable grown on his imperial farm.
• Wild Angelica – native. Shoots, stems and roots can be used.
• Wild Parsnip – native. Cultivated for its roots, although they would not be as large and succulent as modern parsnips; reasonable specimens could be obtained by cultivation and seed selection.
• Wild carrot – native. Like the wild parsnip, wild carrots in their natural state are rather poor food but after cultivation reasonable specimens can be grown.
• Stinging nettle – native. The young shoots can be used as a vegetable and have also been used to flavour beer.
• Water mint – native. Used as a pot herb.
• Lady’s bedstraw – native. Traditionally used in Cheshire cheese with rennet; it will curdle milk on its own.
• Wild thyme – native. Used as a pot herb.
• Wild marjoram – native. Used as a pot herb.
• Tansy – native. Used in tansy cakes and puddings in the Middle Ages.
• Chicory – native. Roots and leaves used.
• Dandelion – native. Roots and leaves can be used with discretion.
• Great Burdock – native. The young stems were once popular as a vegetable.
• Ramsons – native. A type of wild garlic, the leaves and bulbs can be used.

This is not an exhaustive list and I cannot say how these plants were prepared for eating, whether they were used fresh or cooked. Maybe some were only used medicinally and were not used generally as a vegetable at all. Until access is given to some of the more obscure manuscripts, this area of diet will remain open to speculation.

Herbs

Many plants used as pot herbs have been mentioned above. Herbs and spices known to have been used for flavouring were dill, coriander, mustard and cumin, although there is reason to believe many more were actually used than have been archaeologically found. Rose and elder flowers could also have been used for flavouring.

Fruit

The fruit remains recovered from the Viking were apples, sloes, various small plums, bilberries, blackberries and raspberries, which formed the bulk of the fruit intake. Hazelnuts and walnuts were also found. To this list could be added: wild strawberries, rosehips, pears, haws (hawthorn berries) and elder berries. Medlars, quinces and mulberries are all introductions of uncertain date. Medlars and quinces are both natives of Asia and the Mediterranean Area. The mulberry is from the Far East, but the actual origin is now obscure due to its ancient and extensive cultivation. As pointed out earlier, Ann Hagen in A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food is apt to write a very woolly passage and on the subject of deserts and cakes she doesn’t let us down. She does say that the Anglo-Saxons enjoyed various “dishes of milk/cream/curds, sometimes with wine, or with the addition of meat”, but beyond that the rest is just speculation, or drawing on some later Anglo-Norman evidence. No conclusions are drawn, but she does tell us what they could have made with the ingredients
available.

Drink

To help consume all this food, there were drinks: ale, cider, mead, other fruit based drinks and wine. It is likely from evidence found, but not conclusive, that wine was imported from Germany. It is as likely that it was brought in from Frnace as well. It is said that grapes were cultivated in some parts of England from Roman times, though this has to be substantiated. If these drinks were too rich, there was milk (drank with fish), whey, buttermilk and water.

Conclusion

To finish this essay I have taken the liberty of reproducing Ann Hagen’s conclusion, as she does a good job of broadly summing up the known facts, without speculation. “Anglo-Saxon cookery seems to have been based on boiling, a method practised particularly in subsistence economies, were all parts of the animal have to be utilised. The nobility may have been able to indulge a preference which is now widespread for tender joints which do not need stewing. Barley and other cereals, dried beans and legumes were commonly used in stews, brewits and soups.

“Some basic procedures were already established in Anglo-Saxon times: clarifying butter, whipping cream, salting vegetables and serving them with butter, or with oil and vinegar, for example, but one important difference is a quatitative one: numerous herbs were used to flavour Anglo-Saxon dishes. That the cuisine used the resources to hand imaginatively is emphasised by a comparison bewteen Anglo-Norman and early medieval French recipes. The Anglo-Norman recipes make a considerable use of fruit and flowers not found in any French recipes. They are also far more specific and discriminating in the spicing of different dishes. Features of the Anglo-Norman recipes which arguably represent the native English tradition are custard tarts with dried fruit, strawberries, blackberries and pears, hawthorn and rose flowers; white meat stews
with elderflowers, mulberries or pears; red meat stews with rose petals, hawthorn blossoms, cherries and stawberries. There seems to have been a predilection for sweet dishes as a number of the recipes include fruit or honey. There are desert dishes: hazelnuts used in flour and flour milk and elder flowers used to make a pottage, for example.

“As well as fruit sauces and seasonings, colourings and garnishes were seen as important as part of the overal visual effect…”

As a quick reference guide, here follows a categorised list of the foods and notes on cooking methods available at that time.

Vegetables

Carrots (though they used to be white), cabbage (of the loose spring green variety), sea kale, onions, mushrooms, parsnips, garlic, peas, runner beans, spinach, celery,
leeks, field beans, skirrets, Alexanders, Good King Henry and other leafy vegetables (anything green and non-poisonous).

Meat

Beef, pork, mutton and lamb, goat, red deer, venison, wild boar, hare, horse (vikings only).

Poultry

Chicken, geese, duck, plover, black grouse, wood pigeon, lapwing, wild fowl, seagulls – generally all wild birds!

Fish

• Freshwater: pike, roach, rudd, bream, perch.
• Saltwater fish: herring, cod, haddock, flat-fish, ling, horse mackerel.
• Estuarine fish: oysters, cockles, mussels, winkles.
• Also: smelt, eels, salmon.

Dairy

Butter, milk, cream, cheese (soft, hard and smoked), eggs (chickens, ducks and geese).

Herbs/spices

Horseradish, dill, coriander, hops, agrimony, thyme, mint, marjoram and rosemary. Spices were rare and very expensive but may well have been available to some degree!

Grains

Oats, wheat, rye, barley, chick-peas, pearl barley.

Nuts

Hazelnuts, beech-nuts, walnuts, chestnuts (not the sweet ones), almonds (expensive).

Fruits (fresh or dried)

Apples, pears, grapes, sloes, cherries, plums, blackberries, bilberries, raspberries, elderberries, wild strawberries, blackcurrants, redcurrants, quince, medlar, mulberry.

Beverages

Milk, ale, beer, mead, fruit wines, cider, buttermilk.

Cooking aids

Olive oil (expensive), lard, salt, honey.

Cooking methods

• Boiling: in a cauldron over the fire pit or in an animal skin with hot stones.
• Roasting: large rotary spit or small skewers, generally over an open fire.
• Grilling: spiral griddle, hanging griddle or on a ‘barbecue’.
• Baking: wrapped in leaves or clay and left in the embers or use an upturned kettle.
• Frying: in a frying pan or griddle.

Clay or turf ovens may be found in houses.

Baking in temporary encampments was done in a stone lined pit, a lidded cauldron or a flat stone next to the fire. Liquids that needed to be warmed were poured into a suspended animal skin, and then hot stones were dropped in.

Storage/preserving

Preserve meat and fish by salting, pickling (in brine or whey, whose lactic acid prevent food spoilage) drying or smoking (the smoky upper reaches of the longhouse helped to keep meat hung there from spoiling) Dried herring were eaten like biscuits, spread with butter.

Serving

Two meals were eaten daily and wealthier families would have a linen tablecloth. Meats were served on wooden trenchers/plates and eaten with a knife, while stews, porridge and similar items were served in wooden bowls and eaten with wooden or horn spoons.